Reliability and Validity in Research

Reliability and Validity in Research The debate whether qualitative methods are reliable and valid have been contested for a long time between qualitative and quantitative researchers. Quantitative researchers approach research in a positivistic way where they believe there is a single truth, behaviours can be explained by Universal laws and research should be done objectively (Research Methodology, 2016). Most of the studies also involved using statistical methods to analyse. Today, quantitative research is valued by government and policy makers more as they are more reliable, generalizable and easier to analyse (Cannella and Lincoln, 2004 cited in Tracy, 2010). However, qualitative studies study issues in depth hence it should be valued more. In this essay, the definition of reliability and validity in quantitative and qualitative research will be discussed. Then requirements of a good qualitative research will be explored and interview as a data collection method will be evaluated. Reliability in quantitative research is defined by (Joppe, 2000, cited in Golafshani, 2003) as the Extent which results are consistent over time and accurate representation of the total population under study. This means similar results should be replicable at a different time and the sample should represent characteristics of the general population. Validity is whether the research measure what it intends to and how accurate the data is (Golafshani, 2003). Being objective is also important to ensure data are not biased which affects the reliability of the data. Meeting these objectives will ensure good quality quantitative research. In contrary, qualitative research focuses on structures and process behind to have a deeper understanding of a topic through methods such as interviews and discourse analysis. McDowell (1992) called these researchers critical realists and she believes the work they do can help explain a phenomenon whereas quantitative data are only useful in identifying the pattern as correlation does not equal to cause (empirical realists). Qualitative methods also aim to show that the world is complex (Schoenberger, 1991) and messy, therefore reliability does not apply and generalised as diversity is more important (Flyvberg, 2006). The meaning of validity is different in qualitative research as it does not measure anything. Golafshani (2003) defines it as Whether a study appears to be reasonable and appropriate. This is related to the method of data collection and analysis. However, some academics believe that validity should not be applied to qualitative research as the term is defined from a sci entific background. Therefore, alternative criteria are developed as part of a guideline to improve the quality of qualitative research which will be explored in the next section. There is an ongoing tension between rigour and creativity in the qualitative paradigm. To achieve good rigour, a universal standard could be developed to ensure the quality of work is consistent. However, this is rejected by most qualitative researchers as it limits the creativity of their work and results are usually unpredictable which means it will be difficult to meet the standard. Researchers hence need to strike a balance between the two and a guideline will be the most appropriate way to do so (Bailey et al, 1999). The guideline will allow researchers own interpretation of how rigour could be met based on their own circumstances. This will improve the reputation of qualitative research in the society and accepted more widely by the quantitative researchers and government agencies. It also allows researchers from different paradigm to learn from each other and improve their own research methods (Tracy, 2010) One such guideline was proposed by Guba and Lincoln (1985) cited in Baxter and Eyles (1997) who suggested four criteria evaluating qualitative studies to achieve rigour and trustworthiness. They try to apply criteria from quantitative into qualitative research. Firstly, it should be credible so that it is accurately representing the findings and can be trusted. The reader should be able to understand the issue easily by making the whole research and writing process plausible and persuasive (Richardson, 2000 cited in Tracy, 2010). The second criteria is transferability where findings would be useful outside the study. This is similar to generalisability for quantitative research. However, there is less emphasis in qualitative research on that as each case would be different and no clear conclusion would usually be made. It can be transferable to the reader when they make their own interpretation and decide how each specific case could be useful to their own daily life (Tracy, 2010). T he third criteria is dependability developed from the idea of reliability. Although data collected from qualitative methods would not produce consistent results, the way data is transcribed, coded and analysed can be agreed between multiple researchers and participants to ensure interpretation would be consistent. The final criteria confirmability is based on objectiveness. This is The degree which findings are determined by the respondents and not by the motivations of the inquirer. (Lincoln and Guba, 1985. P.290 cited in Baxter and Eyles, 2010). This is needed to reduce the bias in qualitative data collection and results which is one of the main reason why it is less popular than quantitative research. Researcher being reflexive throughout the study is the main way to achieve this which will be explained further later in the essay. The criteria above could now be used to evaluate interview as a data collection method. There are three types of Qualitative interview which vary in the degree of freedom given to the participant when responding. Structured interview involves answering a set number of questions prepared before. A semi-structured interview provides a better interaction between the participant and the researcher, it is a guided conversation with a few predetermined question and prompts used when more information is needed, which is usually written as an interview guide (Longhurst, 2009). The guide improves the credibility (Baxter and Eyles, 1997) as it allows a better answer to be constructed by the participant. An Unstructured interview is rarely used as it is very difficult for the participant to speak for a long period of time on the same topic and could easily go off topic. Semi- structured is the most common qualitative research method as it strikes the balance between the ability for the participant to speak freely and structuring the interview (University of Leicester, Unknown) pro viding a certain degree of credibility. Conducting interview requires choosing participant carefully through sampling. Purposive sampling is usually used in which means choosing participants which fit with researchers criteria who are usually an insider to the topic of research. This means participants will be able to talk in great detail which is the aim of a qualitative interview. Other sampling methods such as snowball (interviewing friends of participants) and convenience are sometimes used due to difficulty in finding insiders. However, this will reduce the credibility of the research as they might have limited to say due to lack of knowledge in the area (Baxter and Eyles, 1997). Interviewing friends will make it harder to achieve credibility as participants might give accounts to satisfy the need of the researcher which might not reflect the real situation. The sample size is seen by quantitative researcher an important factor to produce good quality research. However, in qualitative interview, the number of intervie ws conducted is usually limited to around to 20 due to time and financial constraints (Baker and Edwards, 2012) Moreover, a large sample size is not needed as it is enough when the theoretical saturation is reached (Glaser and Strauss, 1967 cited in Bailey et al, 1999). This is where the themes identified during analysis are repeating and no new knowledge would be gained from interviewing more people. During the interview and analysing process, the language the researcher use is crucial to the outcome of the result as interviews are based on interpretation by different people (McDowell, 2010). The way a question is asked could receive a different response as same words might have different meanings to people. During transcription, the researcher might make his/her own interpretation when something is unclear and the final level of interpretation is made by the reader themselves (Schoenberger, 1991). To make the interview results transferable to the reader, the transcription and analysis should be narrative with thick description and minimal interpretation from the researcher. This should include detailed description and illustration of the situation (Tracy, 2010), for example using a direct quotation from the interview is a good way to achieve it. Methods to improve the credibility of research includes member check and language training. Member check involves sending a copy of the transcript and analysis to the participant (Long and Johnson, 2000) and ask for feedback. The researcher could also understand the language used in an industry before conducting an interview (Schoenberger, 1991). Both of these methods will reduce the chance of misinterpretation. After transcription, coding is done to identify common themes from different accounts. This is done by the researcher who chooses the themes. Due to limited space in journals, some section of the interview is therefore not analysed. As mentioned before, coding needs to be consistent for the research to be dependable through methods such as collaborative coding or the use of a coding book. Triangulation is a common method used to improve the credibility by using multiple sources and methods which give the same conclusion (Denzin, 1978 cited in Tracy, 2010). For example, using multiple quotations to support a statement made would improve the credibility of the research. Most importantly, researchers should be self-reflexive to improve credibility. They should think about their own positionalities and decide how to declare it to the reader (Longhurst, 2009). One way is to be transparent about how decisions are made during the research such as sampling and coding strategy. This could be attached as an appendix (Creswell and Miller, 2000 cited in Tracy, 2010) at the end to help a reader to decide whether they agree with researchers interpretation. Overall, interview as a data collection method can meet all the criteria proposed by Guba and Lincoln (1985) if the researcher is careful about every decision that was made and the language used to communicate with the reader. The guidelines are developed based on the idea of validity hence it can be said interview is also valid as a method but not in a positivistic way in terms of accuracy. They also suggested that When validity is present, it also represent reliability. Therefore, reliability does not have to be considered as it is irrelevant to qualitative studies. Currently, researchers are not being explicit enough in terms of their rationale and how things are done (Baxter and Eyles, 1997), the guideline will therefore help researchers to be more aware of the issue. However, the guideline should not be taken too seriously to the extent that it affects creativity which is the main objective of qualitative research, hence a balance between the two is needed. Bailey, C, White, C, and Pain R (1999) Evaluating qualitative research: dealing with the tension between science and creativity. Area. 31(2): 169-83. http://eprints.ncrm.ac.uk/2273/4/how_many_interviews.pdf Baxter, Jamie and Eyles, John (1997) Evaluating qualitative research in social geography: establishing rigour in interview analysis. Transactions . 22: 505-25. Golafshani, N. (2003). Understanding Reliability and Validity in Qualitative Research. The Qualitative Report, 8(4), 597-606. Retrieved from http://nsuworks.nova.edu/tqr/vol8/iss4/6 Long, T and Johnson, M. (2000). Rigour, reliability and validity in qualitative research Longhurst, R (2009) Interviews: In depth, semi-structured. In international Encyclopaedia of Geography McDowell, L. 1992. Valid games? A response to Erica Schoenberger. The Professional Geographer. 44(2), pp.212-15. McDowell, L. 2012. https://www.dawsonera.com/readonline/9781446206560 Research Methodology, 2016. http://research-methodology.net/research-philosophy/positivism/ Schoenberger, E. 1991. The corporate interview as a research method in economic geography. The Professional Geographer. 43(2), pp.180-9. Tracy, S.J.2010. Qualitative quality: Eight big-tent criteria for excellent qualitative research. Qualitative Inquiry. 16(10), pp.837-51. http://www.le.ac.uk/oerresources/psychology/psa/unit5/page_09.htm

Data Analysis – Viscosity

Data Analysis – Viscosity Introduction: My aim it to find out the different types of liquids are more or less viscous than each other and why. Some liquids flow more easily than others do. For example, honey is very â€Å"thick† and flows very slowly. Water is thin and flows very quickly. So honey is more viscous than water. Liquids that are made up of small molecules have a low viscosity and liquids with long chain molecules (such as plastics) have a much higher viscosity. The viscosity of materials generally decreases with increasing temperature. (EXAMPLE) A definition of viscosity; â€Å"Viscosity is a measure of a fluid's resistance to flow.It describes the internal friction of a moving fluid. A fluid with large viscosity resists motion because its molecular makeup gives it a lot of internal friction. A fluid with low viscosity flows easily because its molecular makeup results in very little friction when it is in motion. Gases also have viscosity, although it is a little harder to notice it in ordinary circumstances. † (1) As temperature increases, the average speed of the molecules in a liquid increases and the amount of time they spend â€Å"in  contact† with their nearest neighbours decreases. Thus, as temperature increases, the average intermolecular forces decrease.The exact manner in which the two quantities vary is nonlinear and changes abruptly when the liquid changes phase. (2) I am going to use the following alcohols: Ethanol Propanol Butanol Pentanol Hexanol Heptanol Octanol Decanol As there are many of them I am not going to use all of them, only a couple, because it would take time doing all of them, also we don’t have a lot of time in our lesson. Aim: My aim is to find out why some liquids flow more freely than others I am also going to investigate the different alcohols. Hypothesis: I predict that the more carbon molecules it has the less viscous it is.So it would take longer to flow. It is because of the types of alcohol. For instance Propanol is less viscous than Octanol. Preliminary experiment: I carried out a preliminary experiment with different alcohol for each experiment. We did this experiment only once just to get an idea of which experiment seemed the best for us to do. The results are shown in the table way below. Aim: The aim of this was to find out which experiment we wanted to do and which seemed the best to us also which one was fairer and would be easier for us to do and explain why we chose the experiment we did.Prediction: Once I saw our teacher show us the experiment I thought the Tilt Test would actually be ‘cool’ to do but I didn’t want to make my mind up just yet so I tried all of them out. I predict that once you go down to the alcohols with the more carbon lengths are more viscous. Apparatus used: * Alcohols; * Ethanol (2), * Propanol (3), * Butanol (4), * Pentanol (5), * Hexanol (6), * Heptanol (7), * Octanol (8), * Dectanol (10)) For Til t Test: * White tile * Clamp Stand * Pipette * Gloves * Stopwatch * China graph Pencil For Glass Tubing: * Clamp Stand * Blue Tack Air Bubble * Stopwatch * Gloves * Clamp Stand For Ball Bearing: * Ball * Test Tube * Bung * Test Tube Rack * Stopwatch * Gloves Method: Ball bearing: 1. Hold the bung with your thumb and turn it. 2. Quickly time the time taken for the ball to move up. 3. Write down the time taken. Tile Test: 1. Mark the tile from the top horizontally same for the bottom. 2. Get the alcohol and put a drop at the top before the black line so you can measure it easily. 3. Time the time taken for the liquid to flow down at your finish line. 4. Then write down the time taken. . Wipe off the liquid and start again from No. 2. Glass Tubing: 1. Turn the tube upright by holding the clamp not the tube. 2. Time the time taken for the bubble to move up 3. Write down the time taken. Fair test and Safety: Results: Tilt Test: Chemical| Time Taken (1)(Seconds)| Time Taken (2)(Seconds)| Time Taken (3)(Seconds)| Mean(Seconds)| Ethanol (2)| 20. 16| 20. 28| 20. 16| 20. 20| Propanol 2-ol (3)| 30. 00| 12. 52| 28. 79| 23. 77| Butanol (4)| 10. 5| 19. 42| 15. 94| 15. 30| Heptanol (7)| 18. 52| 15. 72| 20. 12| 18. 12| Octanol (8)| 31. 03| 12. 9| 19. 52| 21. 08| Glass Tubing: Chemical:| Time Taken (Seconds):| Ethanol (2)| 20 seconds| Butanol (4)| 28 seconds| Hexanol (6)| 48 seconds| Pentanol (5)| 39 seconds| Octanol (8)| 54 seconds| Ball Bearing: For ball bearing it was really hard to time the amount of time it took to fall as it was really fast. So we could write down our results quick enough. Conclusion: We chose to do ball bearing as it was really fast and we hardly had any time to time it also because thought it was an unfair test as we couldn’t time it probably and we could get it wrong.We chose not to do glass tubing because it was hard turning the clamp stand around plus it was really slow and took long to time. We chose to do tilt test as it seemed the fairest test out of the 3. Also we could change a few things so it would be fairer, like mark a point on the pipette so we get the same amount of alcohol on the tile etc. and wipe of the liquid later. Plus it would be good for a group of 3 as there are 3 jobs that we could do like putting the alcohol on the tile, timing the time taken for it to go pass the finish line also to note down the time taken and draw the table.Real Experiment: Aim: Prediction: Apparatus used and Justification: * Alcohols; * Ethanol (2), * Propanol (3), * Butanol (4), * Pentanol (5), * Hexanol (6), * Heptanol (7), * Octanol (8), * Dectanol (10) * White tile – We used this as it would be clearer to see than a black tile. * Clamp Stand – To keep the tile in the same position to keep it a fair test. * Pipette – to keep the measurements of the alcohol on the tile. * Gloves – To not get any of the liquid on our hands and also because of the safety. Stopwatch – To time the length of the time taken for the liquid to travel down the tile and it seems fair as we aren’t doing it in our heads because we could count slowly or faster than an actual second. * China graph Pencil – It is easier to see and to stop the pencil from dissolving as the marks did this. Method: 1. Mark the tile from the top horizontally same for the bottom. 2. Get the alcohol and put a drop at the top before the black line so you can measure it easily. 3. Time the time taken for the liquid to flow down at your finish line. 4.Then write down the time taken. 5. Wipe off the liquid and start again from No. 2. Fair test and Safety: Results: Conclusion: We marked the pipette so we got the same amount of solution each time to keep it a fair test. We kept the tile at the same height; we changed the types of alcohols. We thought it wouldn’t be fair if we left the alcohol on the tile so we wiped it off after every alcohol we used even if we had to use the same alcohol we still wiped it a s it would be unfair because that alcohol would’ve had more liquid so it could make it faster or even slower.We also kept the maker at the same starting and ending point. We had 3 people in our group, so we did the experiment 3 times so it was fair as we would be changing around what everyone did for instance, putting the liquid on the tile, timing th length it take =s for the alcohol to come down and also writing the time taken down. It was goo as if someone did it wrong we wouldn’t done it again but with a different person doing something different. Evaluation: We were all safe as we used gloves so the alcohol didn’t touch our fingers. We tied our hair back so it wasn’t flying around everywhere.We put our chairs under the table so no one got hurt and we had more room. We made sure the clamp stand was in the middle of the table so it doesn’t fall on anyone’s foot. We also made sure that the tile wasn’t loose so it wouldn’t fal l. I’d say we were 99. 9% safe! The tile wouldn’t stay on so it was at different length but one of us held it steady as one of the sides were up and the other was on the table. We measured it every time we used a different alcohol so it was at the same height each time. Next time we could just put it steady on one angle then measure it instead of doing it the other way.I guess my results are about right as my range bars ion my graph are quite close together, some more than others. So they are quite accurate. I think there are two outliers which are Propan 2-ol (2nd Try) and Octanol (1st Try). It was probably a silly mistake that we did, or it could’ve been the temperature of the room. We all did try the experiment and we did different things such as timing the amount taken for the alcohol to go down, getting the liquid in the pipette and putting it down on the tile and also noting down the time taken.One of us could’ve timed it before or after the alcohol was put on the tile, either that or the amount was too much or too less. Also some of them did evaporate when it nearly got to the end. I think from a scale from 1-10 my results would be a 6 with 10 being the most accurate and 1 being inaccurate. Next time I could measure the temperature and go into a room with no windows and nothing that’s going to affect the temperature so it’s always the same temperature. I could use the same pipette each time. References: 1. http://www. rinceton. edu/~gasdyn/Research/T-C_Research_Folder/Viscosity_def. html (date accessed 20th March 2013 – 15:25) 2. http://physics. info/viscosity/ (date accessed 20th March 2013 – 15:33) 3. http://chem4652011. webs. com/chem465-2. gif (date accessed 20th March 2013 – 15:44) 4. http://upload. wikimedia. org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Propanol_flat_structure. png/640px-Propanol_flat_structure. png (date accessed 20th March 2013 – 15:41) 5. http://upload. wikimedia. org/wi kipedia/commons/4/4b/Butanol_flat_structure. png

Bali Versus America

The number of various cultures spanning the globe is immense. Cultures are influenced and driven by a unique language and style all their own. The land of Bali and America are separated by thousands of miles and have contrasting differences in what is viewed as acceptable behaviors and mannerisms. Language barriers can form walls of separation between what is culturally acceptable in these two countries. These cultures develop influential ways of living that are firmly rooted in tradition.I will discuss the different attitudes and in-born beliefs surrounding the subject of politeness as well as the issue of confrontational behaviors. The way people communicate goes beyond the different languages spoken in America and Bali. . For example, an American woman with mixed decent of Italian and Jewish/Hungarian was raised in the hustle and bustle of New York City. If we placed her in Bali, she would be viewed as an outcast. It’s her New-York-Minute attitude where she needs to be verb ose and outspoken to get her point across and get what she wants, both in the workplace and in her leisure.Some Americans might be taken aback by her husky attitude and view it her in-your-face attitude as insulting and rude. Other people, however, would simply see her as another American trying to make her place in society. The discussions surrounding polite behaviors in America take on differing viewpoints in Comparison to the people of Bali. Americans can be very intense and, according to people of Bali, they would be seen as insulting and out-of-control. It’s the American demeanor and body language that is also so different from the Bali culture.It is also common knowledge among certain Jewish families in America to expect an individual to stand up for her rights and be willing to object to views that oppose her Jewish way of life. Many Americans are expected to be confrontational and argumentative. This is not a choice, but instead a way of life for many Americans and a cultural expectation. Then, if we venture to the beautiful landscapes of Bali, we find a much more complacent society. In fact, emotional arguments are almost never even heard of in Bali. The people of Bali are very kind, soft-spoken and set in their way of showing great respect to one another.A linguist living in Bali for numerous years can attest to this. Try to take the pleasant, soft-spoken cultural demeanor back to New York City and a lovely Balinese traveler might discover that the congested, faced-paced whirlwind known as New York is too loud and offensive—even instilling a sense of fear in an individual. A person will discover, dependent on how deeply-rooted they are in their cultural origin, be it in America or Bali, that they must adapt if they want to survive and succeed in a society with such stark contrasts to one’s homeland.Regardless of the language barriers found in dialogue, contrast is furthered and muddled-over by the cultural influences that are sew n into family tradition. From the same token, many Americans—New Yorkers included—can also feel the fear-factor begin to kindle unpleasant feelings if they are immersed in a soft-spoken culture such as Bali. The people of Bali would be very apprehensive—even shocked—by how American treat one another. The people of Bali view politeness and respect very highly. Bali people would wonder how Americans can function by the way they are so rude and offensive to one another.Par to this apprehension stems from a combination of cultural-language elements: for one, the attitude surrounding confrontation and arguments in America and Bali are so different that they would cause great problems if an American were to move to Bali and vice-versa. Then, when this duress—regardless of how small it might be—is compounded with foreign cultural influence, a resulting sense of fear is likely to occur. The Bali people would be the ones who are fearful of the Americ an’s aggressiveness.If an American were to move to Bali, she would also be culturally shell-shocked but from a different perspective. The Bali people would not react to the American’s rudeness and lack of sensitivity. Thereby making it nearly impossible for an American to succeed in this country American cultures and Bali cultures find argument to be influential, but with contrasting expectations. Life is meant to be interesting and filled with excitement. It’s a means of opening up and sharing one’s personal beliefs that are paramount to success in this culture.Americans are brought up in a society that almost requires aggressiveness. Sometimes this aggressiveness does not consider being polite. It is ignored, at least according to the people of Bali. Bali people, in fact, might deem this behavior as rude and self-serving. This, in turn, can put people on the defensive, sensing the needed to act guarded or cautious when immersed in American cultural beli efs. In closing, it is apparent that the various cultures differences surrounding polite mannerisms and confrontation in the work place and on the home front are starkly different.It’s a different ways of experiencing life. The language barriers are but one challenge that people face if they choose to live or work in a country other than the one they were raised in. As this world becomes more and more global, on both business and family fronts, it’s easy to see that a person doesn’t have to travel out of her own country to experience another culture. The stark contrast of cultural influence is but another step toward uniting this planet as we seek ways to work and live together, harmoniously. SOURCES Listening to Other Cultures, Tannin, Deborah. pp. 221-224

A Short Note On Social Problems With Youth - 1551 Words

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